Self-Actualisation is Impossible Within Today's Organizational Essay

Self-Actualisation is Impossible Within Today's Organizational Settings - Essay Example An individual employee would be motivated to take action if nothing hinders the emergence of high-level needs. Maslow’s hierarchy needs was designed according to U.S. cultural values. According to organizational behaviourists, organizations which endeavour to accomplish the needs of their personnel, attract the best workforce and consequently motivate the workers to perform excellently. The organization can use the wages, the work environment, and the people around the workplace to motivate the employees to work harder and achieve certain goals (Schreuder & Coetzee 2010). When organizations meet the low- order needs of the personnel, the workers will struggle for self-actualization, working to become the best they can be. The employees will thus deliver at their optimal level of creativity, turning into exceptionally valuable assets to the company. The contemporary organizations have therefore; put in place measures and strategies to enable the workers to self-actualize by acc omplishing the low-order needs of the employees. Nevertheless, some organizational behaviourists argue that it is impossible to satisfy several high-order needs in organizational settings (Hodson 2001). Eventually, the concept of self-actualization is difficult or impossible to achieve effectively in organizational settings. This paper will discuss whether it is possible for an organisation to realize self-actualisation for its individual employees. The paper presents an argument for and against self-actualisation within today’s organizational settings using illustrations from the contemporary organizational contexts. The possibility of self-actualisation within organizational context Self-actualisation is possible in high-level management than low level management because top managers are better equipped to meet their self-actualization and esteem needs. This is because the backdrop of challenging jobs and opportunities at organisational levels motivates self-actualisation n eeds. Working in teams increases employees’ abilities to satisfy their self-actualisation needs. This is because teamwork gives the employees the incentive to participate in decision making which impact on both the team and the organisation’s performance. Some employees are among group of employees trained by organisations to carry out multiple job tasks that may include hiring and training subordinates, and even terminating employment based on failure to perform satisfactorily. Self-actualisation and esteem needs begin to get satisfied when employees get to learn different tasks. Employees who are less empowered or have little control over their job tasks may feel no need for self-actualisation with regard to their job tasks. Empirical evidence shows that the satisfaction of self-actualisation needs varies according to employee’s job tasks, age, background, and the size of the company (Hellriegel & Slocum 2007). Dorer and Mahoney (2006) observe that organisatio ns could increase their productivity by increasing the individual performance of each employee and by optimisation of untapped potential inherent in employees. A full operational employee is actively involved in the development and utilisation of all his/her

Quality of arguements vs persuader attractiveness Lab Report

Quality of arguements vs persuader attractiveness - Lab Report Example These cues are as follows: Reciprocation, "You owe me"; "Love me, love my ideas"; Authority, "Just because I say so"; and Scarcity, "Quick, before they're all gone" (Griffin 198). These cues are often the excuse people use when supporting or validating their actions. There are various factors involved which determine the route to be employed. These include the extent to which the concerned individual is involved in the issue. When the point is of "putting your money where your mouth is", one is more cautious. Argument quality manipulation is another factor. Whether arguments are presented as non biased facts or in a rhetoric manner each elicits a different cognitive response. The perceived ability of the concerned individual can also pose a barrier to processing the argument through central route. Several arguments are pre-tested in pilot experiments; those that elicit consistently favorable cognitive responses are labeled strong arguments and those that evoke consistently unfavorable cognitive responses become weak arguments. ... These cues are often the excuse people use when supporting or validating their actions. There are various factors involved which determine the route to be employed. These include the extent to which the concerned individual is involved in the issue. When the point is of "putting your money where your mouth is", one is more cautious. Argument quality manipulation is another factor. Whether arguments are presented as non biased facts or in a rhetoric manner each elicits a different cognitive response. The perceived ability of the concerned individual can also pose a barrier to processing the argument through central route. Several arguments are pre-tested in pilot experiments; those that elicit consistently favorable cognitive responses are labeled strong arguments and those that evoke consistently unfavorable cognitive responses become weak arguments. People tend to derive their self-esteem from the same traits that lead to social acceptance (e.g., competence, likability, attractiveness). Halo effects refer to instances in which information about one attribute influences judgments about other unrelated attributes. To the extent that even the violence depicted in media is most apt to be learned when an attractive perpetrator with whom the viewer can identify engages in justified and rewarded violence that fails to depict the harm suffered by the victim of the violence. People who enjoy thinking (i.e., those high in need for cognition; Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) on the other hand tend to form attitudes on the basis of the quality of the arguments in a message rather than on peripheral cues (see Cacioppo, Petty, & Morris, 1983). Individual differences also exist in the ability of people to think about a persuasive

Fulton's Ice Land Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Fulton's Ice Land - Case Study Example Therefore Fulton is trying to adopt some strategies which would increase its profits. Fulton’s current strategy To evaluate the current strategy of Fulton’s ice Land, the 4Cs of marketing is taken into consideration. The 4Cs includes Customer Value, Cost, Convenience and Communication (Crandall, p.57). Fulton’s Ice Land offers indoor staking with a conventional hockey rink surface. Steve operates the staking program and runs a successful hockey program which is accompanied by decent profits. Steve wants to expand his business so that he could allow 700 people at one time in the public session. Steve has 14 public staking session in his ice skating but unfortunately it has not attracted many customers. Out of which the public sessions hold on Saturday and Sunday afternoon has been the most successful, which has recorded an average of 200 people during the winter session. This session has mainly attracted the kids dropped by their parents for many hours and also at tracted few family groups. But the public session operated on Friday and Saturday evening were the biggest disappointment for Steve. This session attracted the age group of 8-14 years and only a handful of young and teenage couples affecting the environment which Steve expected to create for the dating couples and the old patrons. Later Steve limited this session for people of age group above 14 years so to get a better environment for the young crowds. In order to make the skating fun and relaxing Steve installed few lights and music which encourage people to skate to the beats of the music and couples to skate together. Steve basically tried to attract the couples and was successful. Steve hired a local radio disk jockey which attracted many young crowds and couples. Steve realized that it was hard changing the attitude of the people and most of its customers on the weekends belonged to age group of 13 and less. Thus Steve’s effort to attract the teenage and couples did not generate a positive response. Steve’s motive of expanding his public skating program was assumed to attract as many as 700 customers in a public session instead of limiting the use of ice to 12 to 24 players per hour. Steve plans to charge $200 an hour plus concession sale, the two hour public skating would be charged at a rate of $5 per person which would yield up to $3500 for two hours plus a higher concession rate. By operating a large public skating session Fulton expected to earn a profitable turnover. Fulton’s evening session on Friday and Saturday were rated at $5 per person and $1.50 for skate rental. Steve has invested more than $3000 in lighting and about $9000 in promotional activity mainly promoting the rock music radio station which proved to be a failure. Steve operated 14 sessions out of which the public session on Saturday and Sunday were the most successful. The people could choose a session as per their convenience. The kids and families usually arri ved more on Saturday and Sunday during the winter. Fulton Ice Land is situated in the northern part of USA, which is attracted by many Ice Skating rinks; therefore Fulton’s introduction of 14 public sessions would be convenient for the people to choose as per their timings and enjoy the winter with families and friends. Steve used radio as a means of communication in promoting its new offerings, which did not deliver a desired result. Steve spent almost $9000 in promoting the session over rock music radio

Property valuation questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Property valuation questions - Essay Example Here discounted cash flow method is used in this type of property valuation methods. The Residual Method: This method is used to value existing properties that has a potential to redevelop. This method of property valuation consists of many variables and these variables are very sensitive to any changes in market conditions. The Profits Method: This method is also known as account method. It is used where a commercial property is used for accommodation as an integral part of its business. It is generally used in trading premises but also restricted to the property that changes hand on freehold basis. The cost Approach: This method of property valuation for a property that is acquired by its owner but lacks in comparable evidence for similar property transactions. It works on the assumption that the property valued forms part of an ongoing business asset. 5. The comparative method: When comparable transaction of a property is done against a property with similar characteristic. This method of property valuation is called the comparative method of valuation. Generally valuation of agricultural land is mostly valued using this valuation method where the value of the agricultural land is derived from the similar land sold earlier. This method is also in use in UK as an informative source. It is used as standalone valuation method in UK. The Investment Method: This method is generally used to value an income producing property. This method is used to value a commercial property that has a capability to produce rental income. Here discounted cash flow method is used in this type of property valuation methods. The Residual Method: This method is used to value existing properties that has a potential to redevelop. This method of property valuation consists of many variables and these variables are very sensitive to any changes in market conditions. The Profits Method: This method is also known as account method. It is used where a commercial property is used for accommodation as an integral part of its business. It is generally used in trading premises but also restricted to the property that changes hand on freehold basis. The cost Approach: This method of property valuation for a property that is acquired by its owner but lacks in comparable evidence for similar property transactions. It works on the assumption that the property valued forms part of an ongoing business asset. (b) (i) The comparative method (ii) The profit method (iii) The investment method (iv)The investment method 3. Assumptions: (i) First assumption is, the appraised value of a property will vary that depends on whether the appraisal is conducted for the buyer or the seller of the property. (ii) The second assumption is the appraisers are hired only to estimate real estate property values in property sales involving mortgage lending transactions for the property valued. (iii) The third assumption is, market value should approximate replacement cost for the similar property. (iv) The forth assumption is that the assessed value should equate to market value of the property. (v) The fifth assumption is that the appraisers use a formula, such as a specific price per square foot, to figure out the value of a home or any other residential property. (vi) The sixth assumption is that as because consumers pay for appraisals when applying for loans to purchase or refinance real estate, they own their appraisal for there property. (vii) The seventh assumption is that an appraisal is the same as a home inspection for property. 4. Statutory Reasons: (i) The property valuation for statutory purposes including rating of the property. (ii) Government taxes affecting property including land tax and should be taken care of on valuation. Non-Statutory Reasons: (i) Property non-statutory instrument to assert its influence on the land and property markets for the property. (ii) The property tax exemption is limited to the non-profit activities for the property. 5. The comparative method: When comparable transaction of a property is done against a property with similar characteristic. This method of property valuation is called the comparative method of valuation. Generally valuation of agricultural land is mostly valued using this valuation method where the value of the agricultural land

Phar Mor Case Essay Example for Free

Phar Mor Case Essay Between 1985 and 1992, Phar-Mor grew from 15 stores to 310 stores in 32 states, posting sales of more than $3 bi11ion. By seemingly a11standards, Phar-Mor was a rising star touted by some retail experts as the next Wal-Mart. In fact, Sam Walton once announced that the only company he feared at a11in the expansion ofWal-Mart was Phar-Mor. Mickey Monus, Phar-Mors president, COO and founder, was a local hero in his hometown of Youngstown, Ohio. As demonstration of his loyalty, Monus put Phar-Mors headquarters in a deserted department store in downtown Youngstown. Monus-known as shy and introverted to friends, cold and aloof to others-became quite flashy as Phar-Mor grew. Before the fa11of his Phar-Mor empire, Monus was known for buying his friends expensive gifts and he was building an extravagant personal residence, complete with an indoor basketba11court. He was also an initial equity investor in the Colorado Rockies major league baseba11 franchise. This affiliation with the Colorado Rockies and other high profile sporting events sponsored by Phar-Mor fed Monus love for the high life and fast action. He frequently flew to Las Vegas, where a suite was always available for him at Caesars Palace. Mickey would often impress his traveling companions by giving them thousands of do11arsto gamble. Phar-Mor was a deep-discount retail chain se11inga variety of household products and prescription drugs at substantia11ylower prices than other discount stores. The key to the low prices was power buying, the phrase Monus used to describe his strategy of loading up on products when suppliers were offering rockbottom prices. The strategy of deep-discount retailing is to beat the other guys prices, thereby attracting the cost-conscious consumers. Phar-Mors prices were so low that competitors wondered how Phar-Mor could do it. Monus strategy was to underse11Wal-Mart in each market where the two retailers directly competed. Unfortunately, Phar-Mors prices were so low that Phar-Mor began losing money. Unwi11ingto a11owthese shortfa11sto damage Phar-Mors appearance of success, Monus and his team began to engage in creative accounting so that PharMor never reported these losses in its financial statements. Federal fraud examiners discerned later that 1987 was the last year Phar-Mor actua11ymade a profit. Investors, relying upon these erroneous financial statements, saw Phar-Mor as an opportunity to cash in on the retailing craze. Among the big investors were Westinghouse Credit Corp. , Sears Roebuck ; Co. , ma11developer Edward J. de Bartolo, and the prestigious Lazard Freres ; Co. Corporate Partners Investment Fund. Prosecutors say banks and investors put $1. 14 biUion into Phar-Mor based on the phony records. The fraud was ultimately uncovered when a travel agent received a Phar-Mor check signed by Monus paying for expenses that were unrelated to Phar-Mor. The agent showed the check to her landlord, who happened to be a Phar-Mor investor, IUnless otherwise noted, the facts and statements included in this case are based on actual trial transcripts. Case 6 Phar-Mor, Inc. : Accounting Fraud, Litigation, and Auditor Liability and he contacted Phar-Mors chief executive officer (C~O), David Shapira. On August 4, 1992, David Shapira announced to the business community that Phar-Mor had discovered a massive fraud perpetrated primarily by Michael Monus, former president and COO, and Patrick Finn, former chief financial officer (CFO). In order to hide Phar-Mors cash flow problems, attract investors, and make the company look profitable, Monus and Finn altered the Phar-Mors accounting records to understate costs of goods sold and overstate inventory and income. In addition to the financial statement fraud, internal investigations by the company estimated an embezzlement in excess of$10 million. 2 Phar-Mors executives had cooked the books and the magnitude of the collusive management fraud was almost inconceivable. The fraud was carefully carried out over several years by persons at many organizational layers, including the president and COO, CFO, vice president of mark~ting, director of accounting, controller, and a host of others. Many factors facilitated the Phar-Mor fraud. The following list outlines seven key factors contributing to the fraud and the ability to cover it up for so long. 1. The lack of adequate management information systems (MIS). According to the federal fraud examiners report, Phar-Mors MIS was inadequate on many levels. At one point, a Phar-Mor vice president raised concerns about the companys MIS systems and organized a committee to address the problem. However, senior officials involved in the scheme to defraud Phar-Mor dismissed the vice presidents concerns and ordered the committee disbanded. 2. Poor internal controls. For example, Phar-Mors accounting department was able to bypass normal accounts payable controls by maintaining a supply of blank checks on two different bank accounts and using them to make disbursements. Only those involved in the fraud were authorized to approve use of these checks. 3. The hands-off management style of David Shapira, CEO. For example, in at least two instances Shapira was made away of potential problems with Monus behavior and Phar-Mor financial information. In both cases Shapira chose to distance himself from the knowledge. . Inadequate internal audit function. Ironically, Michael Monus was appointed a member of the audit cOIpmittee. When the internal auditor reported that he wanted to investigate certain payroll irregularities associated with some of the Phar-Mor related parties, the CFO forestalled these activities and then eliminated the internal audit function all together. 5. Collusion among upper management. At least six members ofPh ar-Mors upper management, as well as other employees in the accounting department, were involved in the fraud. 6. Phar-Mors knowledge of audit procedures and objectives. Phar-Mors fraud team was made up of several former auditors, including at least one 2Stem, Gabriella, Phar-Mor Vendors Halt Deliveries; More Layoffs Made, The Wall Street Journal, August 10, 1992. 27 Beasley / Buckless / Glover / Prawitt fonner auditor who had worked for Coopers on the Phar-Mor audit. The fraud team indicated that one reason they were successful in hiding the fraud from the auditors was because they knew what the auditors were looking for. 7. Related parties. Coopers ; Lybrand, in a countersuit, stated that Shapira and Monus set up a web of companies to do business with Phar-Mor. Coopers contended that the companies fonned by Shapira and Monus received millions in payments from Phar~Mor. The federal fraud examiners report confirms Coopers allegations. The complexity of the related parties involved with Phar-Mor made detection of improprieties and fraudulent activity difficult. During its investigation, the federal fraud examiner identified 91 related parties. Attorneys representing creditors and investors pointed out that every year from 1987 to 1992, Coopers ; Lybrand acted as Phar-Mors auditor and declared the retailers books in order. At the same time, Coopers repeatedly expressed concerns in its annual audit reports and letters to management that Phar-Mor was engaged in hardto-reconcile accounting practices and called for improvements. Coopers identified Phar-Mor in its audit planning documents as a high risk audit, and their auditors documented that Phar-Mor appeared to be systematically exaggerating its accounts receivables and inventory, its primary assets.

Design of Oil Storage Tanks

Design of Oil Storage Tanks Oil Storage Tanks 1-Introduction Storage tanks containing organic liquids, non organic liquids, vapours and gases are used in many industries. Most such tanks are designed and built in accordance with American Petroleum Institute API-650 specifications (1). These tanks can range in size from 2m to 60m diameter or more and are usually situated in containment basins so that spills will be contained if the tank ruptures. Storage tanks are commonly employed in industries involving petroleum production and refining, chemical and petrochemical manufacturing, bulk storage and transfer, and a variety of other industries consuming or producing liquids and vapours. 1.1-Types of storage tank There are basically there are eight types of liquid storage tanks, viz: (i)Fixed-Roof tanks (ii)External floating-roof tanks (iii)Internal floating-roof tanks (iv)Domed external floating-roof tanks (v)Horizontal tanks (vi)Pressure tanks (vii)Variable vapour-space tanks (viii)Liquefied natural gas (LNG) tanks The first four types of tank are cylindrical in shape with the central axis which is perpendicular to the ground. Such tanks are almost always employed above ground level. Horizontal trunks can be employed both below and above ground level. Pressure tanks are located above ground and are usually spherically shaped to provide the maximum strength to withstand high internal pressures. Variable vapour-space tanks can be spherical or cylindrical. A containment basin made of brick or concrete is normally built around tanks with a lining impervious to the stored material in order to contain spills that could cause fire, property damage or environmental contamination. The capacity of the basin should be at least equal to that of the largest tank plus ten percent of the sum of the capacities of others. Fixed Roof Tanks Fixed roof tanks are common in production facilities where it is required to store hydrocarbons with vapour pressures close to atmospheric pressure. A fixed-roof tank typically consists of a cylindrical steel shell with a dome-shaped or cone-shaped roof that is permanently fixed to the tank shell. Umbrella roofs are also common. Fixed roof tanks are used for storing very high flash-point liquids (e.g. fuel oil, water, bitumen etc.). They are generally fully welded and are now designed to be liquid and vapour tight, while older tanks with a riveted or bolted construction are not vapour tight. Fixed roof tanks are generally insulated to prevent the risk of clogging for some materials, heating coming via steam coils inside the tanks. Dome roofs are used for tanks with a storage pressure slightly higher than atmospheric. Fig 1. A Tank Farm showing a number of Fixed roof tanks Fig. 2. Typical domed fixed-roof tank Fig. 3 Umbrella fixed-roof tank The commonest fixed-roof design has a shallow cone roof with a single centre column and internal (or external) framing to provide support for the roof plates. This involves having rafters and girders pressed to the roof radius. Cone roofs are generally supported from the shell using trusses or rafters. For large cone-roof tanks columns and girders can be used to support the roof plates and rafters. Intermediate columns are used where the diameter is more than 37m. Designs may include a frangible roof joint (i.e. able to break into fragments when over-stressed) for added protection against a sudden increase in internal pressure. For this the design pressure limited is equivalent to the pressure of the total weight of the roof plates including structural rafters. If the storage pressures are going to exceed the capabilities of a cone-roof tant, then other fixed-roof designs such as the self-supporting dome roof or umbrella roof can be used. API Standard 650, (Appendix F) (1) designs permit internal pressures of up to 2.5 psig, depending on the tank diameter. For operating pressures of more than 2.5 psig, API Standard 620, (‘Design and Construction of Large, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks’) (2) has design procedures for internal pressures of up to 15 psig. Because of environmental concerns and to cut down on vapour losses designs tend to include internal floating decks in fixed roof tanks either at the time of construction or later as a retrofit (Fig 3). This has the advantages of both fixed and floating roof design. Fig. 3. Domed fixed-roof tank with inner floating roof and showing roof supports Emissions from fixed roof tanks vary depending on vessel capacity, utilization rate of the tank, vapour pressure of the stored liquid and the local atmospheric conditions. Losses of the stored product from evaporation can be large in fixed roof tanks – particularly for crude oil where vapours are released through the pressure vent valve. Losses are classed either as Breathing Losses or as Working Losses. Breathing losses occur when vapour expansion and contraction caused by changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure lead to the expulsion of vapor. This loss happens without any change to the liquid level in the tank. Working losses happen when the liquid level in the tank is increased. Fixed roof tanks are either freely vented or have a pressure/vacuum vent that allows the tank to operate at a slight internal vacuum or pressure. This stops the release of vapours when there are very small changes in pressure, temperature or to the liquid level. It is also possible to make t anks that are inert when there is a slightly positive gas pressure. Such tanks should have pressure-vacuum valves and when in use be purged with natural gas to remove air from the vapour space. Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of different types of fixed-roof storage tanks (5) 2.1Gauge Hatches Fixed-roof tanks should have a gauge hatch in the roof which allows it to be opened quickly. This allows the operator rapid access to gauge the tank. Gauging comprised: measuring the volume of liquid in the tank finding out if water is present and, if so, measuring the height of the oil/water boundary sampling the material in the tank. determining the temperature of the liquid in the tank. The gauge hatch can be weighted so that it will work as a backup pressure or pressure-vacuum relief device to complement the primary pressure-vacuum valve. Fig 3 Typical gauge hatch Standards for the manual gauging of petroleum and its products are contained in the API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (3). 2.2Filling or pumping operations Routine tank filling and pumping will affect the vapour space in a fixed-roof tank. Removing product from the tank draws air into the vapour space, creating a hazard. During the holding period prior to refilling the tank, evaporative breathing losses are increased because of the larger volume of the vapor space. Adding product to the tank, increasing the volume of liquid, displaces the the mixture of air and product vapour via the tank vent, causing significant evaporative emissions. 2.3Gas blanketing systems If the vapour pressure of the product in the tank is low (below 10kPa), it is safe practice to use a freely ventilated fixed-roof tank. For production tanks or other applications where the vapour pressure of the incoming liquid is usually higher than atmospheric pressure at usual ambient temperatures, a gas blanketing system is needed to maintain positive tank pressure and minimise the risk of air being sucked into the tank vapour space. At times when there is no inflow of product, the tank breathing process could, by itself, lead to air being drawn into the tank through the pressure-vacuum valve, forming a potentially explosive mixture. A gas blanketing system needs a supply of natural gas and a pressure regulator that works to keep the tank pressure at the desired level. When the ambient temperatures increase causing the pressure inside the tank rise, the regulator closes. If pressure continues to rise, the pressure vent opens to relieve the internal pressure in the tank by venting vapours (blanket gas plus product vapour) to the atmosphere or to some vapour recovery process. A vacuum relief valve must still be used to protect the tank against a vacuum forming if the gas blanketing system should fail. 2.4Fire Exposure Out breathing, caused by exposure to fire, may exceed the design venting rate based on normal operating conditions. If that happens, the tank’s construction details determine whether additional venting is needed. On fixed-roof tanks, where the roof-shell attachment is constructed according to API Standard 650 (1), the roof-to-shell joint may be considered frangible, so that excessive internal pressure may cause it to fail before failure occurs in either the tank-shell joints or in the shell-to-bottom joint. In tanks built in this way, there is no need for addition emergency venting systems, as long as the tank is well away from other equipment and the loss of the roof in an emergency is acceptable. On tanks that do not have frangible joints, design procedures are given in API Standard 2000 (4) for calculating the necessary venting capacity for fire exposure. 2.5Containment Basin Fixed roof tanks are constructed insida a containment basin made of brick or concrete and with a lining that should be impervious to the liquid being stored to prevent spills that can cause fire, property damage or environmental contamination. The minimum capacity of the basin should equal the capacity of the largest tank plus 10% of the combined total capacity of any others. To contain a spill or to prevent some other emergency the basin walls must be able to withstand high pressures and also be resistant to the stored product. The basin drain valve is put into the outer side of the containment basin and must normally be kept closed to prevent possible leakage of any contaminant into the environment.

Hacker Crackdown :: essays research papers

The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier by Bruce Sterling is a book that focuses on the events that occurred on and led up to the AT&T long-distance telephone switching system crashing on January 15, 1990. Not only was this event rare and unheard of it took place in a time when few people knew what was exactly going on and how to fix the problem. There were a lot of controversies about the events that led up to this event and the events that followed because not only did it happen on Martin Luther King Day, but few knew what the situation truly entailed. There was fear, skepticism, disbelief and worry surrounding the people that were involved and all of the issues that it incorporated. After these events took place the police began to crackdown on the law enforcement on hackers and other computer based law breakers. The story of the Hacker Crackdown is technological, sub cultural, criminal, and legal. There were many raids that took place and it became a sym bolic debate between fighting serious computer crime and protecting the civil liberties of those involved. In this book Sterling discusses three cyberspace subcultures known as the hacker underworld, the realm of the cyber cops, and the idealistic culture for the cyber civil libertarians. At the beginning of the story Sterling starts out with discussing the birth of cyberspace and how it came about. The Hacker Crackdown informs the readers of the issues surrounding computer crime and the people on all sides of those problems. Sterling gives a brief summary of what cyberspace meant back then and how it impacted society, and he investigates the past, present and future of computer crimes. For instance he explains how the invention of the telephone led to a world that people were scared of because the telephone was something that was able to let people talk to one another without actually being in the same area. People thought that it was so strange and so different because they didn’t understand all of the information behind it. Back then people thought of the telephone as a tool tha t allowed others to talk to them in a way that was so personal yet impersonal. Sterling then goes on to explain how â€Å"phone phreaks† played such an important part in relating the telephones to computer crimes and how they were so closely related back then.